Queen rearing allows for the replacement of ageing queens, the production of mating nuclei and the selection of colonies with useful traits for the apiary. The principle is simple: provide very young larvae to a colony with abundant nurse bees and sufficient resources. The difficulty lies in properly coordinating the calendar, the state of the hives and the availability of mature drones.
Key idea: a good queen does not depend solely on grafting. Factors include the age of the larva, the number and quality of nurse bees, nutrition, management of queen cells, mating and the selection of parent stock. It is advisable to begin with a small series and record each date.
What you need before you start
- A healthy, assessed donor colony: this will provide the larvae. Select it using records of behaviour, health, productivity and swarming tendency, not a single observation.
- A strong queen-rearing colony: it must have abundant nurse bees, pollen, honey and organised space to attend to queen cells.
- Mature drones and suitable flying weather: producing queen cells is not enough, as the virgin queens will still need to mate. The presence of mature drones and a stable weather forecast are better indicators than a fixed calendar date.
- Equipment prepared: cell-bar frame, queen cell cups, grafting tool, cell protectors and mating nucs. Graft-free methods are also available for small batches.
- A written calendar: record the estimated laying date, larval age, transfer date, acceptance, capping, transfer and expected emergence.
How a new queen is produced
Worker bees and queens develop from fertilised eggs. During the first few days, the type and quantity of food received and the space within the cell determine their development. This is why a very young larva, continuously fed with abundant royal jelly in a queen cell, can develop into a queen.
Colonies naturally build queen cells during swarming, supersedure or emergency queen rearing. It is incorrect to claim that every emergency queen will necessarily be inferior: quality depends, among other factors, on the age of the selected larva and the ability of nurse bees to feed it. Planned rearing allows better control of these factors and separate management of queen cells. If you wish to distinguish their origin and position on the frame, consult this guide on types of queen cells.
For a small number of queens, hive divisions or non-transfer systems may be used. When a regular series of easily handled cells is desired, larval transfer to cups is the most common method.
Queen rearing step by step
1. Choose the timing and plan mating
Begin when colonies are growing, there are sufficient nurse bees and you can confirm the presence of mature drones. During periods without natural nectar or pollen flow, the queen-rearing colony may require supplementary feeding, always adjusted to the actual state of the colony and avoiding provoking robbing.
To stimulate drone production in selected colonies, you can introduce a frame fitted with drone-cell wax foundation in advance. This alone does not control mating: queens mate in flight with multiple drones from the surrounding area.
2. Select the donor hive
The donor hive provides the mother of future queens. Assess its behaviour over a full season, and if possible, compare it with other colonies managed under similar conditions.
- Temperament and ease of handling.
- Brood pattern and vigour, not confusing a good pattern at a single point with absence of health problems.
- Hygienic behaviour and disease tolerance assessed using a consistent method.
- Production and local adaptation in relation to other hives in the same apiary.
- Low tendency to swarm when this trait is included in the selection objective.
Temperament and other traits are complex and depend on the queen’s genetics and the drones with which she mates. Therefore, they should not be attributed solely to the ‘male side’ nor assumed fixed after a single generation.
3. Prepare the starter and finisher colonies
The starter colony receives the larvae and must respond quickly by building queen cells. A simple system uses a temporarily queenless, very populous colony with ample reserves. If other young larvae or queen cells remain in the nest, bees may divert resources to them.
Accepted cells may remain in the same colony or be transferred to a finisher, depending on the method used. There is no single mandatory configuration: there are queenless systems, systems with a queen separated by a queen excluder, and combined starter-finisher systems. In all cases, maintaining a strong population of nurse bees and avoiding interruptions in feeding is essential.
4. Prepare the frame and queen cups
The queen-rearing frame usually carries two or three bars with plastic or wax cups. Introducing it a few hours earlier may help bees clean and condition the material, but acceptance will mainly depend on the state of the rearing colony and the care taken during larval transfer.
Queen cell cups can also be made from wax using a mould, or you can use a system in which the queen lays directly into removable cell cups. In the queen-rearing equipment section, you can compare cups, supports, tools and graft-free systems.
5. Graft very young larvae
Grafting, or larval transfer, involves moving a larva from a worker cell to a queen cell cup. Select larvae about one day old: small, curved and resting on ample royal jelly. An older larva has already missed part of the period available for queen-specific feeding.
- Work in a warm place, free from draughts and direct sunlight.
- Keep the frame covered with a damp cloth when not observing it.
- Slide the tool under the larva without rotating or pressing it.
- Deposit it in the cup, preserving its orientation.
- Insert the frame into the rearing colony as soon as possible.
It is not essential to prime the cups with royal jelly. Some breeders use a minimal amount of diluted royal jelly or water to prevent desiccation; excess liquid may complicate handling. Use whichever tool—a Chinese or metal grafting tool, or a fine brush—allows you to work most precisely.
Keep the frame and cups in their usual orientation during transport; do not invert the cells after transfer.
6. Check acceptance and protect the cells
A brief inspection the following day allows verification of which cups have been accepted: they will be extended with wax and contain abundant royal jelly. Avoid shaking the frame or leaving it outside the hive longer than necessary.
If larvae around one day old are grafted, the queen cells are usually capped approximately four days later. From then on they are no longer fed, but remain vulnerable to knocks, temperature fluctuations and timing errors.
Queen cell protectors isolate the cells as emergence approaches. They are particularly useful when several cells remain together, because a queen that emerges first may destroy the others.
7. Prepare the mating nuclei
The nuclei must be ready before the cells reach the transfer date. They need sufficient young bees, food, adequate space, and the absence of another queen or queen cell. A mature cell may be introduced shortly before emergence, according to the schedule of the system used.
If a virgin or mated queen is introduced instead of a cell, the acceptance method changes. A cage allows gradual contact with the colony, but timing and release must be adapted to the nucleus condition and queen type. Before release, confirm that there is no other queen and there are no queen cells.
8. Confirm mating and onset of egg-laying
The virgin queen needs time and suitable conditions to complete her mating flights. Wind, rain, or lack of drones may delay the process. Avoid repeatedly opening the nucleus; an early inspection adds stress without providing useful information.
When egg-laying begins, check eggs, larvae, and brood pattern development. An irregular pattern does not by itself indicate queen failure: the nucleus condition, comb, food, or health may also influence it. Record results before deciding whether to use, sell, or discard the queen.
Indicative timetable for a queen-rearing batch
| Approximate timing | Queen development | Beekeeper control |
|---|---|---|
| Day 0 of grafting | One-day-old larva | Graft and place in the starter |
| +1 day | Cell started and larva on royal jelly | Check acceptance without shaking |
| +4 days | Cell normally capped | Review the calendar and plan the transfer |
| 2–5 days before emerging | Queen in pupal stage | Transfer to nucleus or incubator according to the system |
| Approximately 12–13 days after grafting | Expected emergence, approximately 16–17 days from egg | Avoid delays and protect the other cells |
Common errors that reduce quality
- Grafting larvae that are too old. This shortens the period of intensive queen-specific feeding.
- Overloading a weak queen rearing unit. It is better to produce fewer well-fed cells than many with insufficient attention.
- Leaving competing larvae or natural queen cells in place. Check the starter-colony configuration for the method selected.
- Drying or cooling the frame during grafting. Work quickly, with stable humidity and temperature.
- Losing track of the days. An early queen may destroy the rest of the cells.
- Selecting without records. The appearance of a queen does not replace subsequent evaluation of her colony.
- Ignoring mating. Without sufficient mature drones and flight time, a good cell does not guarantee a properly mated queen.
Is an incubator necessary?
It is not essential to begin. Cells may complete development in a well-prepared colony or nucleus. A queen cell incubator facilitates separating cells and coordinating emergences, but requires control and calibration.
The BEEBOOK protocol for capped queen cells refers to 34.5 °C and a 70 % relative humidity. Verify and calibrate equipment using validated instruments, and follow manufacturer instructions if design requires other adjustments. The incubator does not correct a cell that was poorly fed during the larval stage.
Queen use and transport
A mated queen with confirmed egg-laying may be used to renew another colony, form nuclei, or be incorporated into a selection programme. For transport, use ventilated cages with food and attendant bees, avoiding heat, direct sunlight, and unnecessary delays.
Instrumental insemination: a specialised technique
Instrumental insemination allows control over the drones used and is useful in genetic improvement and research programmes. It requires training, specific equipment, semen handling, and post-procedure care. It is not a necessary stage for beginning queen rearing.
It should not be assumed that an inseminated queen will necessarily have a shorter productive life. The outcome depends on queen quality, semen quality, dose, technique, and her introduction and management.
Frequently asked questions
Can I rear queens without grafting?
Yes. For small numbers, you can use carefully selected natural queen cells or a graft-free system in which the queen lays directly into removable cell cups. Grafting offers greater flexibility when regular batches are required.
How many cells should a colony produce?
There is no universal figure. It depends on nurse bee population, reserves, time of year, and system used. Begin with a moderate load, measure acceptance, and observe jelly quantity and cell size before increasing the series.
When is the best time?
When strong colonies, resources, mature drones, and weather compatible with mating flights are available. The exact date varies by region and year.
Does a large cell guarantee a good queen?
No. External size provides limited information. Quality must be assessed from larval origin and feeding through to mating, egg-laying, and subsequent colony behaviour.
Materials and training to continue
For a first batch you will need, at minimum, queen cell cups and supports, a cell-bar frame, a grafting tool or graft-free system, cell protectors and mating nucs. Review the queen-rearing equipment and select only what your chosen method requires.
If you would rather see the complete process before trying it yourself, the online queen-rearing course uses video demonstrations to cover colony preparation, grafting, mating nucs and selection.
Technical sources consulted
- Büchler and colleagues, Standard methods for rearing and selection of Apis mellifera queens 2.0, Journal of Apicultural Research.
- Penn State Extension, Queen Cell Production: Grafting and Graft-Free Methods.
- Penn State Extension, Beekeeping: Cell Builder Basics.
ISNI 0000 0005 1801 1100 | Joshua Ivars is the manager of LA TIENDA DEL APICULTOR and the author of this blog, where he shares technical and practical guidance for beekeepers. Drawing on extensive experience in the beekeeping sector, he offers advice and solutions based on beekeepers’ real needs, sharing his knowledge of equipment and essential beekeeping practices.
